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Science and Technology

Farming innovations that enabled the rise of modern society

Norman Alvarado

Introduction: Agriculture as the Engine of Human ExpansionFor the vast majority of human history, the worldwide population stayed under one billion, though today it surpasses eight billion. This striking growth…

Science and Technology

Ranking the 10 toughest tunnels and underground engineering achievements

Norman Alvarado

The 10 Hardest Tunnels and Engineering Works Ever ExcavatedTunneling is among the most demanding forms of civil engineering. Whether cutting through unstable geology, burrowing beneath oceans, or carving paths through…

Science and Technology

Ball lightning: a glowing enigma in thunderstorm and plasma science

Norman Alvarado

1. Ball LightningBall lightning is an uncommon meteorological event characterized by a radiant, round formation observed during stormy weather. Observers frequently document glowing spheres spanning anywhere from a few centimeters…

Science and Technology

The 8 most accurate clocks ever built and how they define the second

Norman Alvarado

1) NIST-F2 Cesium Fountain ClockThe NIST-F2, managed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology in the United States, ranks among the most precise primary frequency standards ever constructed. Functioning…